Introduction

Colons

Colons are used to introduce detailed lists or phrases and to show relationships between numbers, facts, words, and lists.

Semicolons

Semicolons are used to link related clauses and to separate information in lists that contain additional punctuation.

Apostrophes

Apostrophes are used to mark contractions, possessives, and some plurals.

Colons

Colons are used to introduce detailed lists or phrases and to show relationships between numbers, facts, words, and lists.

Some punctuation marks, such as periods, question marks, and exclamation points, indicate the end of a sentence. However, commas, semicolons, and colons all can appear within a sentence without ending it.

The colon has a wide range of uses. The most common use is to inform the reader that whatever follows the colon proves, explains, defines, describes, or lists elements of what preceded the colon. Essentially, sentences that are divided by colons are of the form, “Sentence about something: list or definition related to that sentence.”

In modern American English usage, a colon must be preceded by a complete sentence with a list, a description, an explanation, or a definition following it. The elements that follow the colon may or may not be complete sentences. Because the colon is preceded by a sentence, it is a complete sentence whether what follows the colon is another sentence or not.

In American English, many writers capitalize the word following a colon if it begins an independent clause —that is, a clause that can stand as a complete sentence. The Chicago Manual of Style, however, requires capitalization only when the colon introduces speech or a quotation, a direct question, or two or more complete sentences.

Other Uses of the Colon

In addition to being used in the middle of sentences, colons can also be used to visually separate information.

Separating Chapters and Verses

A colon should be used to separate chapter and verse numbers in citations of passages in widely studied texts, such as epic poetry, religious texts, and the plays of William Shakespeare.

• Example: John 3:14–16 refers to verses 14 through 16 of chapter three of the Gospel of John.

Separating Numbers in Time Abbreviations

• Example: The concert begins at 11:45 PM.
• Example: The rocket launched at 09:15:05 AM.

Separating Titles and Subtitles

An appositive colon also separates the subtitle of a work from its principal title.

• Example: Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope

Introducing Speech

Similar to a dash and a quotation mark, a segmental colon can introduce speech.

• Example: Benjamin Franklin proclaimed the virtue of frugality: “A penny saved is a penny earned.”

This form can also be used in written dialogues, such as plays. The colon indicates that the words following an individual’s name are spoken by that individual.

• Example: Patient: Doctor, I feel like a pair of curtains.   Doctor: Pull yourself together!

Semicolons

Semicolons are used to link related clauses and to separate information in lists that contain additional punctuation.

Semicolons link together independent clauses that are closely related, making them flow into a single sentence. Often, using a period to separate related sentences makes them seem choppy. A semicolon is an alternative to using a period or a comma plus coordinating conjunction. Semicolons used before conjunctive adverbs also replace periods. It is important to understand that using a semicolon in place of a period fuses two independent clauses into one; therefore, make sure you don’t start the second independent clause with a capital letter. The final use of semicolons is to separate items in a list or series with lots of commas or other punctuation.

Linking Independent Clauses

Semicolons can be used to join closely related, independent clauses. There are three ways to link independent clauses: with a period, a semicolon, or a comma plus coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS).

• With a period: John finished his homework. He forgot to pass it in.
• With a semicolon: John finished his homework; he forgot to pass it in.
• With a comma plus a coordinating conjunction: John finished his homework, but he forgot to pass it in.

Remember, use of a semicolon is only appropriate if the sentences have a strong relationship to each other.

Independent Clauses Linked with Conjunctive Adverbs

Semicolons can also be used between independent clauses linked with a conjunctive adverb. Follow the conjunctive adverbs with a comma. This usage is very formal, and is typically found in academic tests.

• Example: Everyone knows he committed the crime; accordingly, we expect the jury to agree on a guilty verdict.
• Example: The students failed to finish their in-class assignment; therefore, they are required to remain after school.

Listing Items in a Series

Semicolons are used between items in a list or series when those items themselves contain internal punctuation.

• Example: Several fast-food restaurants can be found within the following cities: London, England; Paris, France; Dublin, Ireland; and Madrid, Spain.
• Example: Here are three examples of familiar sequences: one, two, three; a, b, c; first, second, third.
• Example: Dental hygienists perform clerical jobs such as bookkeeping, answering phones, and filing; administrative jobs such as filing out insurance claims and maintaining patient files; and clinical jobs such as making impressions of the teeth and gums, taking x-rays, and removing sutures.

Formatting with Semicolons

Capitalization

Semicolons are typically followed by a lowercase letter, unless that letter is the first letter of a proper noun like “I” or “Paris.” In some style guides, such as APA, however, the first word of the joined independent clause should be capitalized.

Spacing

Modern style guides recommend no space before semicolons and one space after. Modern style guides also typically recommend placing semicolons outside of ending quotation marks.

Apostrophes

Apostrophes are used to mark contractions, possessives, and some plurals.

Using Apostrophes to Show Possession

Apostrophes can be used to show who owns or possesses something.

For Nouns Not Ending in -s

The basic rule is that to indicate possession, add an apostrophe followed by an “s” to the end of the word.

• The car belonging to the driver = the driver’s car.
• The sandwich belonging to Lois = Lois’s sandwich.
• Hats belonging to children = children’s hats.

For Nouns Ending in -s

However, if the word already ends with “s,” just use the apostrophe with no added “s.” For example:

• The house belonging to Ms. Peters = Ms. Peters’ house. (Even though Ms. Peters is singular. )

The same holds true for plural nouns, if their plural ends in “s.” Just use an apostrophe for these!

• Three cats’ toys are on the floor.
• The two ships’ lights shone through the dark.

For More Than One Noun

In sentences where two individuals own one thing jointly, add the possessive apostrophe to the last noun. If, however, two individuals possess two separate things, add the apostrophe to both nouns. For example:

• Joint: I went to see Anthony and Anders’ new apartment. (The apartment belongs to both Anthony and Anders.)
• Individual: Anders’ and Anthony’s senses of style were quite different. (Anders and Anthony have individual senses of style.)

For Compound Nouns

In cases of compound nouns composed of more than one word, place the apostrophe after the last noun. For example:

• Dashes: My brother-in-law’s house is down the block.
• Multi-word: The Minister for Justice’s intervention was required.
• Plural compound: All my brothers-in-law’s wives are my sisters.

For Words Ending in Punctuation

If the word or compound includes, or even ends with, a punctuation mark, an apostrophe and an “s” are still added in the usual way. For example:

• Westward Ho!’s railway station
• T.I.’s new album

For Words Ending in -‘s

If an original apostrophe, or apostrophe with s, is already included at the end of a noun, it is left by itself to perform double duty. For example:

• Our employees are better paid than McDonald’s employees.
• Standard & Poor’s indexes are widely used.

The fixed, non-possessive forms of McDonald’s and Standard & Poor’s already include possessive apostrophes.

Don’t Use Apostrophes For…

Nouns that are not possessive. For example:

• Incorrect: Some parent’s are more strict than mine.

Possessive pronouns such as its, whose, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs. These are the only words that are able to be possessive without apostrophes. For example:

• Incorrect: That parakeet is her’s.

Using Apostrophes to Form Contractions

In addition to serving as a marker for possession, apostrophes are also commonly used to indicate omitted characters. For example:

• can’t (from cannot)
• it’s (from it has or it is)
• you’ve (from you have)
• gov’t (from government)
• ’70s, (from 1970s)
• ’bout (from about)

An apostrophe is also sometimes used when the normal form of an inflection seems awkward or unnatural. For example:

• K.O.’d rather than K.O.ed (where K.O. is used as a verb meaning “to knock out”)

Using Apostrophes to Form Plurals

Apostrophes are sometimes used to form plurals for abbreviations, acronyms, and symbols where adding just s as opposed to ‘s may leave things ambiguous or inelegant. For example, when you are pluralizing a single letter:

• All of your sentences end with a’s. (As opposed to “All of your sentences end with as.”)
• She tops all of her i’s with hearts. (As opposed to “She tops all of her is with hearts.”)

In such cases where there is little or no chance of misreading, however, it is generally preferable to omit the apostrophe. For example:

• He scored three 8s for his floor routine. (As opposed to “three 8’s.”)
• She holds two MAs, both from Princeton. (As opposed to “two MA’s.”)

Summary

Key ideas from this section include:

• A colon can introduce the logical consequence, or effect, of a previously stated fact.
• A colon can introduce the elements of a set or list.
• Colons separate chapter and verse numbers in citations of passages in widely studied texts, such as epic poetry, religious texts, and the plays of William Shakespeare. A colon can also separate the subtitle of a work from its principal title.
• Colons may also separate the numbers indicating hours, minutes, and seconds in abbreviated measures of time.
• Sometimes, a colon can introduce speech or dialogue.
• Semicolons connect two closely related, independent clauses (complete sentences) and turn them into a single sentence.
• Semicolons take the place of periods or commas followed by coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).
• Semicolons should be used before conjunctive adverbs (however, meanwhile, therefore, otherwise, in addition, and others) to link together sentences. Follow conjunctive adverbs with a comma.
• Semicolons can be used in lists that include lots of commas.
• Apostrophes can be used to indicate possessives (for example, “my dad’s recipe.”)
• Apostrophes can be used to form contractions, where they indicate the omission of characters (for example, “don’t” instead of “do not.”)
• Apostrophes can also be used to form plurals for abbreviations, acronyms, and symbols in cases where forming a plural in the conventional way would make the sentence ambiguous.

Sources:

“Colons and Semicolons” in Boundless Writing. Licensed by Lumen Learning under CC BY SA 4.0 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-writing/chapter/colons-and-semicolons/

“Apostrophes and Quotation Marks” in Boundless Writing. Licensed by Lumen Learning under CC BY SA 4.0 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-writing/chapter/apostrophes-and-quotation-marks/